| Criteria and Indicators of Sustainable Forest Management Indicator Review Proposed Revised Indicators Draft - For Review and Comment |
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February 10, 2006 For more information on the Montréal Process C&I Review, please contact: Mr. Simon Bridge, Project Officer, Montréal Process Technical Advisory Committee This technical document is based on earlier documents and discussions prepared by or for the Montreal Process Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) as part of their work on the Montreal Process indicator review. It is considered a technical aid and has not been reviewed by the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests , nor is it an official document of the Working Group. The document is made available by the TAC so that users of the Montreal Process C&I framework and other interested parties may comment on its content. Table of contents Summary table of the revised indicators Links between the revised indicators and the indicators in the 1995 Montreal Process C&I framework CRITERION 1 – Conservation of Biological Diversity CRITERION 2 – Maintenance of Productive Capacity of Forest Ecosystems CRITERION 3 – Maintenance of Forest Ecosystem Health and Vitality CRITERION 4 – Conservation and Maintenance of Soil and Water Resources CRITERION 5 – Maintenance of Forest Contribution to Global Carbon Cycles Introduction This document, prepared by the Montreal Process Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), presents the draft revised indicators for the Montreal Process framework of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. It is an outcome from the 2 nd TAC meeting on the review of the indicators held in Santiago and Malalcahuello, Chile, from November 28 th to December 2nd, 2005. This document is provided to allow Montreal Process member countries and other interested parties to examine the draft revised indicators and advise the TAC if they feel there are omissions or areas that require a second look . The TAC is confident that the revised indicators address the values, issues and concerns of the forest communities in the member countries and that the revised indicators will improve reporting. Nonetheless it welcomes input from interested parties in member countries and the international forest community. Any comments should be submitted to either Dr. Tim Payn, Convener of the TAC (email: tim.payn@ensisjv.com ) or to Mr. Simon Bridge, TAC Project Officer (email: sbridge@nrcna.gc.ca ) by March 6, 2006. Background The 12 member countries of the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators of SFM, otherwise known as the Montréal Process, agreed at their 16 th Meeting held in Jasper, Canada from October 18 – 23, 2004, to undertake a review of the 67 indicators in their C&I framework. The criteria are not being reviewed. The review is taking place from February 2005 to July 2006. The Working Group's Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) has been assigned the task of performing the work and they will recommend a revised set of indicators to the Working Group in mid 2006. The TAC consists of one technical expert from each of the 12 member countries. Between February and July 2005, member countries, in their own way, consulted with their stakeholders to develop their list of proposed revisions to the indicators. Each country then submitted their list to the TAC. The TAC then met in Sochi, Russia, from October 3 – 7, 2005 and in Santiago and Malalcahuello, Chile from November 28 – December 2, 2005 to discuss the proposals and refine the draft list of revised indicators. In January and February 2006, Montreal Process member countries and other interested parties will have the opportunity to comment on the draft list of revised indicators. In March and April 2006, the TAC will finalize their recommended set of indicators, considering the input received, for recommendation to the Working Group in July 2006. Summary table of the revised indicators Criterion 1: Conservation of biological diversity 1.1 Ecosystem diversity
1.2 Species diversity
1.3 Genetic diversity
Criterion 2: Maintenance of productive capacity of forest ecosystems
Criterion 3: Maintenance of ecosystem health and vitality
Criterion 4: Conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources 4.1 Protective function
4.2 Soil
4.3 Water
Criterion 5: Maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles
Criterion 6: Maintenance and enhancement of long term multiple socio-economic benefits to meet the needs of societies 6.1 Production and consumption
6.2 Recreation and tourism
6.3 Investment in the forest sector
6.4 Cultural, social and spiritual needs and values
6.5 Employment and community needs
6.6 Social equity - distribution of benefits
Criterion 7: Legal, institutional and economic framework for forest conservation and sustainable management 7.a Extent to which the legal framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests 7.b Extent to which the institutional framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests 7.c Extent to which the economic framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests 7.d Capacity to measure and monitor changes in the conservation and sustainable management of forests 7.e Capacity to conduct and apply research and development aimed at improving forest management and delivery of forest goods and services Links between the revised indicators and the indicators in the 1995 Montréal Process C&I framework
Indicators in the original (1995) Montreal Process C&I framework that are not reflected in the revised Montreal Process indicators:
CRITERION 1 - Conservation of Biological Diversity “Biodiversity” is defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity as: ... the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part: this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.Biodiversity enables ecosystems to respond to external influences, to recover after disturbance, and to maintain the organisms essential for its ecological processes. Human activities can impact adversely on biodiversity by altering habitats, introducing invasive species, or reducing the population or ranges of species. Conserving the diversity of organisms should support the ability of ecosystems to function, reproduce, and remain productive. Therefore, all naturally occurring organisms should be maintained in the ecosystem. Increasing human populations, changing resource consumption patterns, economic systems that do not value biodiversity, and disparities in the sharing and access to resources can all impact adversely on biodiversity. For some local communities, maintenance of biodiversity is essential for survival; for urban or other communities, maintenance of biodiversity has broader economic, intrinsic, altruistic, and environmental values. There is a need in all countries to enhance scientific understanding, and to develop methods to direct science and policy to the conservation of biodiversity. There are many approaches and methods to enhance and maintain biodiversity. These approaches vary in time and space, and within and among countries. The value of a range of sources of knowledge should be accepted as a basis for decision making including both scientific based systems and the traditional knowledge of forest dwellers and users. With regard to forests, biodiversity incorporates three concepts: Ecosystem diversity describes the variety of different ecosystems found in a region. A categorisation of the combination of animals, plants, micro-organisms, and the physical environment with which they are associated, is the basis for recognising ecosystems. Species diversity describes the number and variety of species in a given area. Genetic diversity describes the range of genetic characteristics found within a species and among different species. 1.1 Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem diversity is the variety and relative abundance of ecosystems and their plant and animal communities. Maintenance of the variety and quality of the earth's ecosystems is necessary for the preservation of species. Without sufficient quantities of their natural habitats, species become vulnerable to extinction. INDICATOR 1.1.a Area of forest by forest type, by age class or successional stage, and forest ownership or tenure Rationale: Ecological processes and viable populations of species that are characteristic of forest ecosystems are dependent on a contiguous ecosystem or ecosystems of a certain minimum size. Each forest type is considered to represent a separate ecosystem and is itself composed of a variety of ecosystem components. If sufficient area of each forest type is not maintained, these ecosystems become vulnerable to loss from fires, hurricanes or typhoons, disease, and other disasters. Many species are wholly or partly dependent on forest of a particular age or successional stage. Therefore, all normally occurring age classes or successional stages should be present with sufficient area to support these species. Ecological processes and the species associated with those processes within a forest ecosystem or forest type, are often associated with vegetative structure (species composition, age of the vegetation, its diameter and height, and stratification of the canopy layer). It should be noted that some forest types are predominantly composed of uneven-aged stands or otherwise difficult to ascribe to particular age classes. In addition, in terms of human needs, forest type and forest age are important determinants of timber growth and yield, the occurrence of game animals, other non-timber forest products, and the forest's aesthetic and recreational values. Different land ownerships or tenures have different management regimes, with associated differences in values, objectives, goals or targets. Understanding that area of forest under different land tenures is important to understanding how different land management regimes may impact biological diversity. Also, forest ownership or tenure has important implications for many other aspects of sustainable forest management and often sets the stage for understanding other indicators of SFM. It is therefore important that this information be reported at the beginning to the framework. Approaches to measurement: Plot measurement provides information on land currently covered by forest, forest type, stand age or successional stage, and additional information about conditions associated with that forest type for forest conservation and management needs. These plot measurements will allow concurrent collection of data for other indicators. Although plot-based surveys are undertaken for many purposes, simple determination of forest area and, in some cases, stand age or successional stage is also commonly accomplished with digital satellite or airborne multispectral image data. Prior to satellite airborne digital data, aerial photography provided the easiest means of determining the area of forest in a region or nation as well as stand ages or successional stages. Satellite and airborne multispectral imagery, often combined with ancillary information such as digital elevation models, are rapidly replacing the use of aerial photography for the measuring and assessing various forest factors. Forest type can be categorized by each country using a system suitable to its particular situation. However, the categorization scheme should allow for the aggregation of forest types into the following four ecological types for common reporting: conifer, broadleaf, mixed, bamboo/palm. Age class can be determined by interpretation of aerial photographs or digital images, knowledge of disturbance history, or by ageing individual trees. The latter can be accomplished on a sample basis in large area classification and mapping projects. Forest ownership and tenure information can be compiled from records within each country. INDICATOR 1.1.b Area of forest type in protected areas defined by age class or successional stage Rationale: In its broadest sense, the area and proportion of forest ecosystems reserved in some form of protected condition provides some indication of the emphasis being placed by a society on the preservation of representative ecosystems as a strategy to conserve biodiversity. There are also important forest management questions that can be addressed by maintaining information on a network of comprehensive, adequate and representative forest types and age classes or successional stages within protected areas. Traditionally, protected areas have been set aside for their conservation, scenic and recreational values. The ecosystems they contain might not be representative of the full range of biodiversity in a country. If protected areas are part of the national strategy for conserving ecosystems and species (including rare and endangered species), then some indication of what is protected is required. Over time, forest types and age classes or successional stages within protected areas may change and this change also needs to be monitored. Management strategies for forest lands administered for commercial use can be influenced by the area of land that has been reserved in protected areas. Adequate account of the ecosystems and species in reserved areas may provide more management options in forests under management for timber production or other purposes. Approaches to measurement: This indicator measures the extent of forest ecosystems in protected areas, be they areas with formal legal protection, such as area protected by legislation, or other forms of protection. Other forms of protection can include private protected land, such as forest land owned and protected by national trusts or conservation organizations, or forest protected by policy constraint, such as protected riparian corridors. Forest inventories in protected areas are often not as comprehensive as inventories in areas used for commercial forest activities. In addition, forest areas within a country may be protected by different levels of government who may have different inventory requirements. Co-operation between all levels of government is important to establishing a comprehensive assessment of this indicator. Where sufficiently detailed forest inventories are lacking, initial efforts to estimate the area protected can be accomplished by identifying the legal boundaries of protected areas and classifying the lands they contain to distinguish forest from non-forest particularly by forest type and age class or successional stage. Care should be taken to distinguish the proportion of forest lands in protected areas from non-forest lands (ice-covered regions, deserts, grasslands, water bodies). The IUCN World Conservation Union has developed a set of categories of protected areas that are designed to accommodate a variety of different land use situations and management goals. These may be useful for reporting. INDICATOR 1.1.c Fragmentation of forests Rationale: The fragmentation of a forest into small pieces may disrupt ecological processes and reduce the availability of habitat. Decades of research in this field have identified a definite relationship in the ability of forest habitats of various sizes to retain species once common to that habitat. Some forest fragments are too small to maintain viable breeding populations of some species. Species dependent on the interior regions of extensive forests require an adequate area that is not close to a forest edge. Significant distances between forest patches can interfere with pollination, seed dispersal, wildlife migration, and breeding. Other changes resulting from fragmentation include a potential increase in invasion by exotic species, environmental changes, and predation problems. Ultimately, these changes result in the loss of species. In addition, regional level connectivity of forest cover can facilitate the adaptation of species to climatic changes. Fragmentation information is also useful for analysis of commercial opportunities as small tracts (ownerships) may not be available for resource management. Approaches to measurement: There is no single accepted methodology to measure or calculate fragmentation. Natural fragmentation results from fire and geological-scale variation in the landscape. Of special interest is the increase or decrease of fragmentation caused by humans. The sensitivity of many species to particular degrees and types of fragmentation is not known. Consequently, in some situations it is useful to identify the results of fragmentation (the loss of susceptible species or changes in species diversity), as well as the degree of fragmentation or the size and condition of the largest remaining fragment.The nature of the species or taxa of concern should determine the technique that will be used to calculate fragmentation. Patch size, the distance forest patches are from each other, or the resulting amount of forest edge all affect species differently. Examples of how Montreal Process member countries have measured forest fragmentation can be found in their national C&I reports. For example, Australia, in its 2003 State of the Forest Report tracked changes in the number and area of forest patches in different size categories. The United States, in its 2003 National Report on Sustainable Forests tracked trends in the area of interior forest. In countries with extensive areas of forest, road density might act as a potential measure of fragmentation. While recognising that this is an imperfect method, it may provide an interim measure. Given the available technology, efficient ways to measure fragmentation might use a mixture of satellite remote sensing, aerial photography and field verification. Computer-based spatial analysis can be used to measure forest fragmentation and generate comparative statistics. 1.2 Species diversity The greatest and most readily recognizable form of biological depletion lies with species extinction. Slowing down the rate of species extinction due to anthropogenic factors is a key objective for the conservation of biodiversity. Changes in species population levels and distribution may provide an early warning of changes in ecosystem stability and resilience, as will increases in the number of invasive, exotic forest-associated species. INDICATOR 1.2.a The number of known forest associated species for which ecological information is available Rationale: The maintenance of a species list for a given area as a measure of biodiversity is the most basic and easily understood measure by most of the public. The issue of species diversity is often expressed in the popular media as the number, or projected loss, of species in an area. Forest managers also use numbers of species as one way of determining biological diversity and species diversity. Trends in species diversity can reflect the invasion of exotic species or a loss of native species, both of which can disrupt forest processes such as pollination or food chain relationships. In addition, the loss of species diversity may cause a reduction in the quality of human life. Valuable economic species may be lost, as well as important medical opportunities, and aesthetic values may be diminished. A focus on numbers of species may lead to a preoccupation with those ecosystems that have high numbers of species and less concern about those with low numbers. Ecosystems with naturally low species counts, however, may also be more threatened, in addition to possessing unique species. Approaches to measurement: An inventory of all forest associated species (e.g., mammals, plants, fungi, insects) is desirable but rarely feasible. This, however, should not prevent the beginning of such an inventory. Lists are available in most countries for certain taxa such as vertebrate animals and vascular plants. Even for these taxa, however, statistically sound data to detect trends in species are rarely available. The best data currently available are for species with high public interest, economic value, ecological importance, or which represent indicators of ecosystem health. This may mean that some species of importance to the viability of ecosystems might be overlooked (e.g., insects and other invertebrates). Probability sampling using randomly located or stratified transects through forest types is a common approach to data gathering. Randomly located transects in selected habitats at the correct time of day (for nocturnal species, for example) or season (for frogs, for example) could be undertaken. The result would be a significant increase in quality of data available. In addition to a high quality of data for vertebrate animals and vascular plant species, it would be possible for inventory specialists traversing the transects to collect data on other taxa. It is the experience in some countries that an examination of current forest inventory design, restructuring of current monitoring efforts, and partnerships with other agencies or non-governmental efforts can lead to innovative mechanisms to undertake sampling of this type. Forest inventories in some countries (eastern and central Europe, Japan, the US and Canada) go beyond probability transects and use long-term inventory plots located over the entire country to monitor forest condition over time. These sampling strategies will measure vascular plant species, lichen communities, bio-indicator plants for air pollution and soil fauna, for example. With these data, indices can be developed of species diversity, relative abundance (major population changes), and spatial distribution. INDICATOR 1.2.b The number and status of forest associated species at risk as determined by legislation or scientific assessment. Rationale: This indicator is a refined measure of the conservation of biodiversity and provides information on the conservation of species that are already of concern. As the overall size of a given species' population declines, a point is eventually reached where reproduction is insufficient to reverse further decline, which significantly raises the risk of extinction. By tracking the number and conservation status of species on this list, changes in the number and status of those species will be available. The loss of those species will be at a cost of unknown proportions. Changes to the lists will also indicate the continuing development of knowledge about such species. Approaches to measurement: A clearly defined listing procedure for threatened, rare, vulnerable, endangered or extinct species is the primary way to maintain this list at the national level. In the absence of such a listing procedure, regional survey data or expert opinions may be used. Monitoring population levels and breeding success is a good way to track the risks to vulnerable species. More intensive, scientific inventories of smaller areas may also be available. The monitoring of all individuals may be possible for very small populations. In some situations, modelling and mapping of the species habitat from satellite data or aerial photography may provide critical information. A growing or diminishing list of species in this category will be of interest for it could indicate to forest and conservation area managers whether practices are succeeding in maintaining or conserving biological diversity. Interpretation of changes requires knowledge of the species and listing processes. INDICATOR 1.2.c The status of in situ and ex situ efforts focused on conservation of species diversity Rationale: Sustainable forest management requires a commitment to conserve locally or regionally adapted populations of native species using a combination of in situ and ex situ approaches. In situ (on site) conservation of species diversity is provided by parks and other protected areas, ecological conservation areas, reserved stands and planned natural regeneration. Ex situ (off-site) conservation measures include zoos and arboretums. This indicator describes the extent of in situ and ex situ conservation efforts to conserve native species diversity within each ecozone. Approaches to measurement: Measurement of this indicator will be primarily via descriptions of efforts undertaken within each member country. Countries are urged to provide quantitative examples where possible. 1.3 Genetic diversity Genetic diversity, or the variation of genes within a species, is the ultimate source of biodiversity at all levels; it is the material upon which the agents of evolution act. Loss of variation may have negative consequences for ecological fitness and prevent adaptive change in populations. INDICATOR 1.3.a Number of forest associated species at risk from isolation and the loss of genetic variation Rationale: The geographic ranges of species are continuously responding to phenomena such as glaciation, vegetation migration, climate fluctuation, predation or interspecific competition. Today, human activity may be accelerating some forces of change. Species that currently occupy only a small portion of their former range might have lost some of their genetic variation. They are at risk of losing much of their remaining variability due to natural (e.g., fires, hurricanes or typhoons, diseases) or human caused events (e.g., road development, reservoirs) that can decimate local populations. This erosion in genetic variation results in the species being less able to adapt to changes in its environment brought on by humans, climatic change, or the invasion of exotic species. The result is a higher risk of species extinction. The forest ecosystem of which the species is a part will, in turn, itself become less resilient to change. Society should be concerned because a species with a small component of its original genetic material will have less potential for human benefit. The best examples of this are food plants and the constant search for different variations of these species to develop higher yielding or pest resistant varieties of the plant. Very few countries have the ability to directly monitor the genetic changes in endemic species. However, we know that loss of genetic diversity results where once widely distributed species are reduced to small or fragmented populations. The high cost of direct measurement of genetic markers makes range mapping an attractive alternative mechanism to identify species where genetic diversity is likely to be declining. Approaches to measurement: Survey data are the most appropriate way to monitor the distribution of species. However, survey data regarding the current and original range of most species are not available. Historical records, expert opinion and incidental observations, however, are available on the distribution of most vascular plant and vertebrate animal species. Some species are already greatly reduced in geographic distribution. Any further reduction in the species range or numbers should be closely monitored when possible. Many of these species are currently known. For forest management purposes, the focus of this indicator is the loss of breadth in the geographic range resulting from land use changes or management actions, rather than documenting all species that have had traditionally limited ranges. Although all species should be preserved, of special management concern are species with shrinking populations and ranges. The key question to be answered in identifying species at risk is the point at which the viability of a species is threatened by a reduction in its distribution. INDICATOR 1.3.b Population levels of selected representative forest associated species to describe genetic diversity Rationale: There are many forest dependent species that rely on some particular forest structure (multistoried tree canopies), forest vegetation associations (e.g., the association of the Koala and certain species of eucalyptus) or ecological process (e.g., the relationship between pyrophilic tree species and frequent wildfires). These species are commonly associated with other species that are also dependent on similar conditions. One of these species could be used to represent all species dependent on similar conditions, as it is not feasible to monitor all species. Monitoring population levels of such representative species will indicate the status of the associations of species dependent on specialized conditions. It is important to monitor representative species from diverse habitats to ensure that these habitats, and the species dependent on them, are protected from threats that may affect species viability. Monitoring representative species across their range will provide information that can be used by decision-makers to help ensure that sub-populations of all species dependent on a particular forest condition will have suitable habitat for their existence. For example, a 10 per cent loss of a species may be acceptable in terms of overall numbers but a whole area losing a population may indicate a major regional disturbance to an ecosystem type. Management use of this indicator will ensure forest health conditions are being monitored and may help avoid species becoming listed in indicators 1.2.b and 1.3.a. Approaches to measurement: It is suggested that keystone species (species known to be very important to an ecosystem, for example pollinators, food species for large carnivores or key decomposers) be chosen because of their importance. It is also suggested that species from different taxonomic groups should be monitored because different taxa are likely to respond to different threats. The species selected for this indicator might overlap with species monitored for indicator 3.1.c for forest health. Efforts could be made to use a variety of sources of existing data such as from amateur surveys by birdwatching clubs. Effort should be made to avoid monitoring species that are cryptic or for which limited data on habitat requirements exist. INDICATOR 1.3.c Status of in situ and ex situ efforts focused on conservation of genetic diversity Rationale: Sustainable forest management requires a commitment to conserve locally or regionally adapted populations of native species using a combination of in situ and ex situ approaches. In situ (on site) conservation of species diversity is provided by parks and other protected areas, genetic and ecological conservation areas, reserved stands and planned natural regeneration. Ex situ (off-site) conservation measures include zoos, seed banks, seed orchards, clonal archives, provenance tests and arboretums. This indicator describes the extent of in situ and ex situ conservation efforts for native species within each ecozone. Approaches to measurement: Measurement of this indicator will be primarily via descriptions of efforts undertaken within each member country. Countries are urged to provide quantitative examples where possible. CRITERION 2 - Maintenance of Productive Capacity of Forest Ecosystems Many human populations depend on forests directly or indirectly for a wide range of extractive and non-extractive goods and services. Opportunities to provide goods and services sustainably are clearly linked to the productive capacity of the forest. If the productive capacity of the forest is exceeded, there is the risk of ecosystem decline. For forests to continue to function, it is necessary to maintain the presence of the forest itself; to understand the levels of goods and services now provided; and to determine levels that are likely to be sustainable. The nature and degree of any changes and the factors that account for variations in productive capacity should be examined. For various reasons, the nature of the goods and services provided from forests will change over time as a consequence of changes in social and economic demands, technology, and actions taken in the forest to provide the goods and services. The use of tools and knowledge to measure progress toward sustainability will also change, but the basic premise of sustainability remains. It is often useful to monitor changes in productive capacity as a measure for ecological processes that may be difficult to measure in other ways. Changes in capacity could be a signal of unsound forest management or unforeseen agents affecting ecosystems, such as acidic deposition and global climate change. In both examples, significant changes in the ecosystem could be taking place that might reduce the ability of the ecosystem to maintain biodiversity, ecosystem health, or soil and watershed protective functions. The productive capacity of an ecosystem is related to ecosystem resilience and to disturbance and stress. Maintaining forest ecosystem productivity is also closely linked with the conservation of soils and hydrological regimes in forest catchments. Productivity can be measured using traditional forest management measures in order to reduce costs and to be compatible with existing databases and the inventory systems already in place. INDICATOR 2.a Area of forest land and net area of forest land available for wood production Rationale: This indicator provides information fundamental to calculating the wood productive capacity of existing forests. It shows how much land is available for wood production, compared with the total forest area of a country. The difference between total area and net area demonstrates that some forests are not going to be harvested for a variety of reasons. Statistics on plantation forests may be identified and presented separately. Approaches to measurement: Data for this indicator should be consistent with the information collected under Criterion 1. Useful data may include the following (collected across all land tenures and forest types):
Data collection could take place using geo-referenced map data, including geographic information systems and remote sensing from satellite or airborne imagery. Other data can be obtained from existing government or industry sources and management plans. Changes should be reconciled by knowledge of the causes of change. If there have been both gains and losses over a reporting period, then they should be included in the interpretation. The trend in the indicator should be interpreted against management policies relating to forest area. INDICATOR 2.b Total growing stock and annual increment of both merchantable and non-merchantable tree species in forests available for wood production Rationale: An indicator of the current total volume of wood available is one of the most basic indicators of forest sustainability on areas potentially available for wood production. The indicator can be related to the volume harvested each year, with increases or decreases in the total stock (annual increment) tracked over time. Knowledge of the growing stock and annual increment may also assist with the interpretation of other indicators under this criterion, such as indicator 2.d, as well as indicators under other criterion, such as criterion 3 - forest ecosystem health and vitality. Approaches to measurement: Measurement data might include the following:
Changes in the market may cause erratic trends in what is considered to be merchantable or non-merchantable. Interpretation should consider figures merchantable or non-merchantable stocks separately and as a sum. A variety of field inventory and analytical techniques are available to measure and estimate standing volumes of wood. Pre-logging estimates should be confirmed using post logging assessments to compare estimated and actual yields. An increase or decline in growing stock will be directly correlated with changes in the net area of forest land, in productive capacity or in forest management strategies. Interpretation should include management policies and other factors that have influenced both actual growing stock levels and the quality of the data. INDICATOR 2.c The area and growing stock of plantations of native and exotic species Rationale: This indicator is a measure of the degree to which forest management agencies/organisations are establishing plantations in response to increasing demand for forest products. The provision of forest products from intensively managed plantations may impact on biodiversity and demands for similar, or other, services from native or natural forests. The use of both native and exotic species in plantation management may enhance the potential range and quantity of goods and services available from the forest sector but, under certain circumstances, may produce unintended environmental effects. Approaches to measurement: Data for this indicator may include:
Information may be available from plantation owners and governmental agencies. Trends in yield show plantation productivity over time for different species. Interpretation should distinguish between changes due to extensions to the plantation estate and changes due to improvements in silvicultural techniques and genetic stock. INDICATOR 2.d Annual removal of wood volume compared to the volume determined to be sustainable Rationale: Sustainability of the socio-economic well-being derived from the wood products industry depends fundamentally on the biophysical sustainability of wood harvests. This indicator compares actual harvest level against the sustainable level of harvesting permitted by forest management plans as a measure of the forest's ability to maintain its productive capacity over time. Approaches to measurement: Data for this indicator could include:
INDICATOR 2.e Annual removal of non-wood forest products compared to the level determined to be sustainable Rationale: Sustainability of the socio-economic well-being dependent on non-wood forest products depends fundamentally on the biophysical sustainability of harvests. This indicator compares actual removal of non-wood products against either the level of removal permitted by management plans or against the level of harvest scientifically or socially determined to be sustainable as a measure of the forest's ability to maintain its productive capacity over time. Approaches to measurement: Data for this indicator could include:
Data can potentially be gathered from co-operatives, collectives or producer associations for the good concerned. Information may be obtainable from government and industry sources and records for licensed activities. Information may also be available from local communities, including indigenous communities. CRITERION 3 - Maintenance of Forest Ecosystem Health and Vitality The maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality is essential to the sustainable management of forests. Forest ecosystem vitality refers to the ability of an ecosystem to perpetuate itself. The degree of vitality may be reduced by chronic factors, such as pollution, nutrient imbalance, foraging stress, or change in the historic disturbance frequency or intensity. The loss or replacement of key biological components such as decomposers, pollinators, or food chain relationships can also reduce the degree of vitality. A forest ecosystem is healthy if it retains the ability to maintain its biological diversity, biotic integrity and ecological processes over time. The assessment of forest health can only take place against some baseline condition. It is necessary to understand the changing nature of forests, to identify when change is induced by human intervention, and how this change affects sustainability. Systems have been developed to measure changes and countries are now assessing their forests on this basis. When disturbances and stress remain at levels within the range of natural variation and the biological components and processes of the forest are maintained, then forest health will also be maintained as forest ecosystems are inherently dynamic and adapted to stress. In theory, as it is extremely difficult to manage for all species individually, it is necessary to maintain the processes that species have evolved with and are now dependent on. Stresses beyond the limits of tolerance (a critical threshold) can adversely affect sustainability. The impacts of forest management activities might create conditions in forests beyond the limits of tolerance of species such as a change in fire patterns. Prevention of the introduction of exotic organisms into forests that might cause extensive damage in the absence of natural controls is also a key part of sustainable forest management. Air pollution is another anthropogenic stress that is known to damage forests. Monitoring of the health of forests should be designed to detect stresses, including those caused by air pollution or other human activities so that protective measures can be implemented. Forest types may change if sufficiently stressed. This situation might not be acceptable if the new forest type is unable to provide the desired range of goods and services or if the forest cannot provide sufficient habitat for native species. INDICATOR 3.a Area of forest affected by biotic processes beyond reference conditions Rationale: This indicator identifies and monitors the area of forest affected by a variety of biotic processes and agents, both natural and human-induced. Impacts include disturbance due to both native and non-native insects and disease as well as the introduction of non-native species that may compete with, interbreed with, or displace native species. Where these processes are altered beyond some critical threshold they may produce significant changes to the condition of the forest. By regularly examining specific indicators, it may be possible to detect deleterious changes and modify management strategies to reverse the change. Approaches to measurement: Identify threatening processes and agents relevant to each country and possibly on a regional (sub-national) basis within countries. These agents may include interactions between natural events and management actions in the following areas: grazing, introduction of exotic biota, insects and diseases. Data are likely to be both quantitative and narrative. Use quantitative data wherever possible. Some examples of useful data include:
Plantations should be reported separately, if possible. A range of different methods are potentially available for measuring the area affected by the given processes/agents. For example,
Data on the presence and abundance of exotic biota may be obtained via monitoring and control programs and research. Use of known relationships between critical regional processes and agents, and forest ecosystem health and vitality may also be used to measure this indicator. For each threatening process identified by a country and for which monitoring is proposed, the interpretation of data collected should include statements of the areas affected in each recording period. The expectation is that there may be important trends that can be discerned from time series information. For some indicators, it may be important to the interpretation that critical thresholds or baselines are set and the results of each sampling period can then be compared with that standard. Qualitative assessment against management objectives may be possible in many cases. Where such comparisons can be directed towards an adaptive management approach, this is a desirable outcome from the ‘interpretation'. In many cases, quantitative assessment may require further survey and/or research and development to either make recording or interpretation useful or to improve on initial attempts. INDICATOR 3.b Area of forest affected by abiotic agents beyond reference conditions Rationale: This indicator identifies and monitors the area of forest affected by a variety of abiotic processes and agents, both natural and human-induced. Some forms of abiotic disturbance are long-term, or effectively permanent. It is important to understand how much of the forested area has been converted to, such as permanent roads, urbanization, agriculture, mining reservoirs, etc. Different types of land conversion may have different impacts on sustainable forest management and this information has relevance to other criteria. For example, conversion of forest to agriculture may remove forest cover, but may not seriously impact the ability of the soil to grow trees in the future, unlike, for example, conversion to mining, which may remove the surface soil. This is relevant to the conservation of soil and water resources. Likewise, the area of forest converted to roads may have implications for the conservation of biodiversity since increases in road density may lead to forest fragmentation. Similarly, the conversion of land to and from forest cover may have implications for forest carbon storage. Other abiotic disturbances may result in more temporary forest changes, such as harvesting, fire, floods, climatic events or salinisation. Such disturbances are often stand replacing, but the forest often grows back quickly after the disturbance. In some cases, the disturbance process may be a fundamental process in the forest. Boreal forest species, for example, have evolved with and have adapted to frequent forest fires, and a certain amount of disturbance by fire helps to keep the forest healthy and promote sustainability. However, society's actions can influence these natural disturbance processes in many ways. In other cases, the disturbance process may be human induced, such as harvesting. Unlike disturbances such as land conversion, fire or harvesting, the impacts of pollutants may take many years to become apparent. However, there impacts are no less real. Air pollutants are considered to have a significant cumulative impact on forest ecosystems by affecting regeneration, productivity, and species composition. Correlating forest health measures with information of deposition or concentrations of these substances may provide more information on the effects of pollutants on forests. It is important that we track the area disturbed by abiotic disturbance processes so that we can see if human influences are causing significant impacts. Approaches to measurement: A range of different methods are potentially available for measuring the area affected by the given processes/agents. For example,
For air pollutants, it may be possible to measure the impacts by:
CRITERION 4 - Conservation and Maintenance of Soil and Water Resourses This Criterion encompasses the conservation of soil and water resources, and the protective and regulatory functions of forests. Chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of aquatic systems are an excellent indicator of the condition of the forests around them. Conservation of soil and water is also fundamental to sustaining the productive capacity of forest ecosystems, and protecting life and property. Forest management activities can modify forest soils. For example, timber harvesting may compact soils, increase the sediment load in streams, and alter in-stream habitats. These impacts can be minimised by using appropriate management techniques, such as the protection of riparian zones from disturbance by machinery, and the use of site preparation techniques to remedy the consequences of compaction. On the other hand, certain types of soil disturbance may be beneficial, by promoting the regeneration of certain plant species. The condition of soil and water resources needs to be monitored against appropriate baselines to ensure that the various functions of catchments or watersheds are maintained or restored. This is fundamental to the sustainability of forest ecosystems. Monitoring trends in the forest management planning cycle enables adaptive management strategies to be implemented to protect soil and water resources. However, directly assessing the impacts of forestry practices on soil and water quality and quantity across all of a country's forests is often difficult and expensive. Instead, indicators of compliance with locally applicable forest management policies, guidelines and standards as well as indicators that assess the area at risk of potential damage can provide an effective measure, provided the standards and risk models are periodically updated and supported by ongoing long-term research and the best available scientific knowledge. 4.1 Protective function In order to ensure that terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are maintained, it is important that policies are in place which provide for specific management practices or the protection of sensitive sites. Sensitive site conditions include riparian zones, wet soils, infertile soils, steep slopes and shallow soils over bedrock. With respect to aquatic systems, policies that address stream crossings, watershed management, and riparian areas will assist in maintaining water flow patterns, water levels, and water quality. INDICATOR 4.1.a Area of forest whose designation or land management focus is the protection of soil or water resources Rationale: This indicator provides a measure of the area of forest whose designation or land management focus is the protection of soil or water resources . In harvested forests, it is important that measures are implemented that give protection to water courses, if soil erosion is to be reduced and water quality maintained. Recording how much land is specifically allocated to soil and water quality protection provides an indication of the extent to which these elements are specifically considered in forest management. Approaches to measurement: It is important that countries have, or develop, consistent definitions and procedures for identifying and mapping water catchments and water course hierarchies (i.e., first, second, third order streams). It will be important to decide what level of stream protective measures will apply to each stream order, perhaps subdivided by regions, soil erosion risk, land form, or other major factors affecting the soil and water where these differ significantly within a country. It is very difficult to measure the boundary of areas designated for protective functions on the ground, i.e., stream buffers. Geographic information systems (GIS) can be useful in this regard. Useful data may include a GIS layer or map of stream location by category, avalanche zone, etc., identified by order and protective prescription (for example, third order streams may have 20 m buffer on each side). Initial measurements are those required to construct the basic GIS information layers for the values being protected (e.g., watershed and stream locations) and their categories (e.g., by order or hierarchy, perennial or non-perennial). Sources of information can be public policy documents, field survey/ground truthing, remote sensing, and other map or database procedures. Measures from these databases will consist of appropriate analyses of the GIS databases, for information on areas protected and total forest area within buffer strips, riparian zones, or protected catchments. In measuring this indicator, consideration should be given to the treatment of land with multiple functions, for example, forests where the primary management goal is to conserve soil and water values, but where some level of production of wood and non-wood products may also take place. 4.2 Soil INDICATOR 4.2.a Area of forest subject to forest management activity that is deemed at risk of [irreversible] significant soil disturbance Rationale: To be completed Approaches to measurement: To be completedINDICATOR 4.2.b Degree of compliance with locally applicable, enforceable legislation, regulations and policies on soil disturbance and degradation Rationale: Soil sustains plant production and other ecological and hydrological functions of the forest through its ability to hold and supply water and nutrients, to store organic matter, and to provide suitable habitat for plant roots and a wide range of organisms. Forest management can remove and redistribute soil nutrients and organic matter, and can alter the three-dimensional structure or physical properties of the soil to the extent that productivity and other ecosystem functions are impaired. This indicator tracks the compliance in the forest industry with soil disturbance standards and the number of times soil disturbance in excess of allowable maximums has occurred. Approaches to measurement: "Disturbance" includes erosion, compaction, displacement and rutting, while "standards" refers to any nationally or sub-nationally applicable guidelines. The data for this indicator would likely come from forest management and enforcement agencies. Interpretation should include description of how compliance is assessed in different jurisdictions: for instance, in some jurisdictions every cut-block may have a final harvest inspection that may include a walk-through assessment of soil disturbance. Some soil disturbance is expected during forestry activities and is acceptable without impact on productivity. In some cases, disturbance may also be desirable, such as for regeneration. This indicator aims to track undesirable soil disturbance. It is also important to report where soil disturbance standards are being applied across the country. For example, such guidelines may not be applied on private land. A map of the compliance rate, including areas with "no data" would be useful for reporting. Note that “rate” of compliance could refer to the number of compliant areas relative to the total number checked, or to the area in compliance relative to the total area checked. Initially, it will likely only be possible to examine the number of areas in compliance as different jurisdictions have different ways of assessing the area disturbed. In the future, it is hoped that a common approach to soil disturbance monitoring will be developed that will be able to statistically indicate the area in non-compliance. Ultimately, it is the amount of productive area that is damaged that is of concern here. INDICATOR 4.2.c Area of forest with [persistent [significant] degradation [processes]] [significant][irreversible] [adverse] [soil disturbance and/or degradation] Rationale: This indicator measures the extent of physical soil change induced by human activities that might affect soil productivity and hydrology and other ecosystem processes. This could include soil erosion (from water and wind) in forest areas that is of sufficient magnitude to lower soil fertility or cause significant sediment delivery to streams. It could also include soil compaction from the use of heavy equipment in the harvesting of forest products, or from vehicle access, which is a major cause of changes in soil bulk density. Other considerations are pollutants and environmentally damaging chemicals that might be affecting forest land or changes in chemical properties that affect soil fertility. Approaches to measurement: National level data on soil erosion is challenging to summarise in a statistically meaningful way. Effective alternatives can be reports on sample sites chosen to represent the variation in forests and their uses. Sites should include controls that consider natural variations in geology, land form, wind patterns, and hydrology, with no harvesting/use by humans, and sites with known kinds, intensity, and frequency of uses. Data from sample sites can include the following:
Data for soil compaction can be collected at the operational scale, but it is more difficult to develop a national level indicator. Methods exist for measuring changes in soil physical properties at the research scale, for example, the penetrometer (sensitive to soil moisture), shear strength (sensitive to soil moisture), bulk density and porosity. Characteristics of ruts (depth, soil displacement) can also be measured. However, There are no widely accepted standards of what constitutes significant compaction. The density, porosity and structure of soil layers vary greatly in nature. A sampling strategy could be implemented for major forest soil types, natural bulk density determined, and any variation related to forest practices identified. The significance of changes to soil physical properties might be determined by calibration with important processes such as infiltration of water, establishment of new tree seedlings, root growth, and stand growth for different soil types. The importance of soil physical change differs between access/infrastructure areas (e.g., roads, tracks, log storage areas) and the general harvest area. Potential cumulative impact is important, as recovery can be extremely slow in nature. 4.3 Water INDICATOR 4.3.a Area of forest subject to [harvest related] [forest] management activities that could result in significant impact on water quantity, or biological or physical qualities Rationale: To be completed Approaches to measurement: To be completedINDICATOR 4.3.b Degree of compliance with locally applicable, enforceable legislation, regulations and policies on harvesting and road construction, stream crossing and riparian zone management that address water quality, quantity and timing Rationale: Poorly constructed road and stream crossings and inappropriate activity in riparian zones can lead to the introduction of excessive amounts of sediment, altered water chemistry, and changes in the flow and timing of water courses. These changes can have important impacts on aquatic populations, plants and animals, as well as on human populations that depend on aquatic systems for survival. Most jurisdictions have standards in place to protect water quality and aquatic ecosystems and forest management agencies often carry out field surveys to determine if those standards are met. Certifying agencies also audit forestry operations to ensure that certified operations respect established standards. This indicator tracks the rate of compliance with such standards. Approaches to measurement: Many forest management agencies and certifying agencies already compile information on compliance. The number of compliant and the total number of assessments should be reported. Note that it is assumed that a statistically valid number are sampled each year.The interpretation of these numbers for the determination of sustainability depends heavily on the adequacy of the standards being applied and the total number of assessments being conducted. Management standards must be sufficient to maintain water quality and sampling must be thorough enough to adequately capture national-level trends. Low percentage numbers indicate that practices are potentially having serious impacts on water quality in managed areas. Higher numbers indicate that impacts to watercourses are being minimized.INDICATOR 4.3.c Area of water bodies, or stream length, in forest areas with significant change in physical or biological properties from reference conditions Rationale: This indicator measures aspects of the health of the aquatic environment and the quality of water for human use (drinking, irrigation, recreation, etc.), by measuring biological, physical, and chemical variables. Records of these variables can, over time, show trends that may indicate whether current or past management practices are positively or adversely affecting water quality. Management practices can then be adjusted, to maintain or improve water quality. Approaches to measurement: Reference conditions, be they historic variation, baselines, targets or thresholds, should be defined at a national or sub-national level as appropriate for the country. Where reference conditions are not available, the alternative is to select comparable least disturbed sites for baseline studies.Data for this indicator may include the following:
The goal is to relate water quality to the rate and extent of forest management activities. The water quality values may be variable due to a range of natural phenomena and factors external to forest management. Monitoring and analysis will allow impacts on water quality to be determined and assessed. CRITERION 5 - Maintenance of Forest Contribution to Global Carbon Cycles Forests have an important role in global carbon cycles, both as sinks and sources of carbon. Carbon stocks in forests include biomass (litter, woody debris, roots, dry standing stems), soil carbon pools, and forest products. Forests also contribute to the storage, absorption, and release of atmospheric carbon. The biosphere has a significant influence on the chemical composition of the atmosphere. Vegetation withdraws CO 2 from the atmosphere, through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere by the respiration of vegetation, the decay of organic matter in soils and litter, and through disturbances related to fire and harvesting. The interchange between biosphere organic matter and the atmosphere is large; approximately a seventh of the total atmospheric CO 2 passes into vegetation each year. Natural disturbances, particularly in boreal forests, also affect the carbon cycle and these disturbances are the major cause of carbon fluxes in these forests. Wildfire and damage from insects, diseases and storms may play a large role in the carbon cycling of temperate and boreal forests. Forest management practices may increase these effects. Management activities that aim to maintain and enhance, where appropriate, the carbon stored in forests and forest products over the medium to long term can make a positive contribution to stabilising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. There are natural fluctuations of carbon stocks in forests over time, and the limits of these fluctuations should be understood to better manage the carbon budget. The measurement approaches recommended for these indicators are those proposed, at this time, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Reference Manual for Greenhouse Gas Inventories, under the Framework Convention on Climate Change — Reference Manual Volume 3, Chapter 5, Land-Use Change & Forestry ( http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs1.htm ). The IPCC is developing protocols for reporting on the contribution of forests to carbon cycling. Montréal Process countries may want to use these protocols, in order to maintain consistency of reporting processes with the Framework Convention on Climate Change, as well as to limit duplication of effort, with regard to the carbon status of forests. INDICATOR 5.a Total forest ecosystem carbon pools and flux Rationale: This indicator measures the national carbon pool provided by forest ecosystems and the change in the total forest ecosystem carbon stocks over time. Globally, forest ecosystems are one of the largest reservoirs of both biomass and carbon. Reports on trends in this indicator are important for determining national strategies in forest management as a means to help stabilise global climate. Stabilisation of global climate is, in turn, important to national strategies regarding sustainable forest management, as climate change can significantly disturb the ecological balances that have produced the kind and distribution of forest we have today. Global changes in climate could result in the reduction of area available for forests, and/or the reduced productivity of these forests in some countries, an increase in the extent of forests or their productivity in other countries, and a loss of forest biodiversity globally. Approaches to measurement Measurement approaches recommended for these indicators, at this time, are those proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Reference Manual and Workbook ( http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs5.htm ) for Greenhouse Gas Inventories, published in 1996. This preliminary work suggests that calculation of carbon pools at a national level can be done by using default values for a relatively small number of subcategories of forest type. More detailed information on the carbon status of forest ecosystems than have been used in the default values. The intent is to provide a calculation and reporting format that can accommodate the range of data available to different countries, yet allow them to present the results on a comparable basis. For example, some countries routinely collect forest biomass and inventory data, enabling relatively precise and direct measurement of changes in biomass stocks and environmental carbon. INDICATOR 5.b Total forest product carbon pools and and flux Rationale: This indicator measures the role that forest products play in the sequestration, cycling, or emission of carbon. Harvested wood releases its carbon at rates dependent upon its method of processing and its end-use; for example, waste wood may be burned immediately, paper usually decays in up to five years (although landfilling of paper can result in longer-term storage of the carbon and eventual release as methane or CO 2 ), and lumber decays in up to 100 or more years. Provided the forest is fully regenerated, forest harvesting could result in a net reduction in carbon emissions if the wood that is harvested is used for long-term products such as lumber, and particularly where wood is used as a substitute for higher energy materials. In addition, where wood is used as a substitute for fossil fuels, there can be positive benefits to carbon cycles. There is still scientific uncertainty and debate on accounting methodologies regarding wood products. The default assumption is that all carbon in harvested biomass is oxidised in the removal year. The net change in stocks of forest products should be a better indicator of a net removal of carbon from the atmosphere than the gross amount of forest products produced in a given year. New products with long lifetimes processed from current harvests frequently replace existing product stocks, which are in turn discarded and oxidised. Approaches to measurement: If detailed data are available to confirm that the stocks of long-term forest products are increasing or decreasing, the forest and other woody biomass stocks calculation undertaken for indicator 5.a should be modified to account for such changes. This includes accounting for imports and exports of forest products during the inventory period. The IPCC Expert Group on Harvested Wood Products is presently addressing this topic.INDICATOR 5.c Forest industry carbon emissions Rationale: Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are increasing as a result of human activities. While the impact is not known with certainty, it is believed that humans are having a discernible influence on the global climate, and that future effects will be potentially more serious. The major source of emissions is the burning of fossil fuels, and the major greenhouse gas in terms of volume emitted is carbon dioxide. This indicator tracks forest sector's contribution of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by measuring, over time, the industry's emission of carbon dioxide, include carbon dioxide produced as a result of energy production. Approaches to measurement This indicator should consider not only the total carbon emissions, but also what types of fuels the emissions are coming from. It may be possible to demonstrate that emissions from cleaner energy sources are on the rise while emissions from dirtier fuels are declining. Emissions from fossil fuels, where “new” carbon is being introduced into the atmosphere have different implications for climate change than do emissions from biofuels.INDICATOR 5.d Avoided fossil fuel emissions by using harvested wood Rationale: This indicator highlights the potential for woody biomass as a substitute for fossil fuels and energy-intensive materials. Forest harvest could result in a net reduction in carbon emissions, when the wood is used as a substitute for more fossil fuel intensive materials (e.g., steel, concrete, and plastic). In addition, when wood is used as a substitute for fossil fuels, there can be benefits to the global carbon budget. Reports on trends in this indicator are important because research shows that these substitution effects are a significant component of fossil fuels reduction. Approaches to measurement: Consistent measurement units should be used to measure the amount of carbon emitted to the atmosphere that is avoided by substituting woody biomass fuel for fossil fuel. Calculate the amount of avoided emissions by comparing the energy produced per unit of biomass carbon to the energy produced by unit of fossil fuel carbon. Similarly, calculating avoided carbon emissions related to the substitution of wood products (including recycled wood-based products) for fossil fuel intensive products requires the comparison of total energy of production in the two approaches (e.g., life cycle analyses). Shared estimates should be consistent with those of the UNFCCC/IPCC group on harvested wood. Some useful sources of information could include the UNFCCC national reports, which have an energy sector memo item that quantifies CO2 emitted from biomass fuels (this measure could be used to address a portion of this indicator) and the Energy Information Administration, which keeps statistics of CO2 emitted from biofuels. CRITERION 6 - Maintenance and Enhancement of Long-Term Multiple Socio-Economic Benefits to Meet the Needs of Societies Forest ecosystems are renewable and, with management regimes that retain their ecological integrity, biological components, and adaptive capacity, can be sustained in perpetuity. Historically, population growth and development pressures have resulted in the conversion and loss of forest land to other uses and the degradation of forest ecosystems. There has been a tendency to focus on the extraction of timber and the management of the forest land base to maximise timber production. The adoption of sustainable forest management has significant implications for the use and management of boreal and temperate forests to provide a wide variety of social and economic benefits. The ability to deliver diverse social and economic goods and services over the long term depends on the maintenance of the forest land base and of natural forest ecosystem processes. Such diverse goods and services include the following:
The production of many goods and services in the forest sector usually occurs by combining inputs of forest resources, labour, capital and various intermediate products. The supply of socio-economic benefits from the forest sector is closely related to the level of investment, which is, in turn, based on the expected return on the investment. For example, investments may be made in the growing, managing, or harvesting of forests, and in the production of forest products, or it may be made in conservation management, education, research, tourism and in other social services associated with the forest sector. In this fashion the biological and economic components of sustainable forest management are addressed. 6.1 Production and consumption This element measures the quantity, value, and consumption of various types of forest products extracted from forest lands. This group of indicators considers the quantity of wood and non-wood products extracted from forests, and the value of these products in terms of actual or estimated market value. These indicators also consider the degree of further processing of forest products, the degree of recycling, and differences between local production and consumption rates. The ability to measure and provide support for sustainable forest management depends on the recognition of the full range of socio-economic products derived from the forest, the value that local people place on these products, and the economic benefits and environmental costs of resource development. Some of the most direct and substantial socio-economic contributions come from extractive activities, such as timber harvesting. The inherent biological productivity of forest lands can result in the production of products and services that support local, regional, and national economies. In some cases, the goods are extracted outside the market economy. For example, households may obtain a wide range of products from the forest for direct consumption. Some examples include wild game, fuelwood, building materials, potable water, nuts, and fruits and berries. Even though they are not traded in formal markets, these products are important to local economies. The monetary value of these products requires some estimation. Forests also provide raw material to a wide range of industrial enterprises whose outputs are traded in more formal markets where supply and demand interact to determine quantities consumed, and market prices. Some products, such as pulpwood, sawlogs, and veneer logs, require further processing into more valuable products. Other products, such as latex, bamboo, rattan, Christmas trees, and ornamental plants involve production and extraction of other non-wood products. These primary products can also support secondary manufacturing. There is no single accepted measure of the total value of forest products obtained from forest lands. One measure of the aggregate value of a product to consumers is consumer surplus. The direct value of raw materials, such as timber, in terms of production can be assessed from the economic rent of the resource. Products may undergo a number of stages of processing before being purchased by the consumer. Each stage of the production process adds value to the raw material and can contribute to the local economy. In some cases, such as subsistence products, it is common to estimate the equivalent monetary value of the products. The quantity of forest products consumed by the local population may differ from the amount produced, with the difference being in the form of imports and exports. In addition, fibre recycling reduces fibre requirements per unit of product produced. Considerable differences in the price of various forest based products, and in their per-capita consumption, can also be expected among countries. INDICATOR 6.1.a Value and volume of wood and wood products Rationale: This indicator measures the size and economic health of the wood products sector by identifying trends in the value and volume of wood and wood products production and allowing comparison of those trends against management objectives. Approaches to measurement: Data that may be of use in measuring this indicator include the following:
Value added should be calculated within each nation, although additional value may be added outside the nation where wood products export occurs. Data for this indicator may be provided by the following:
Interpretation: The total value of wood products for a reporting period is the aggregate of the value added at each point in the chain of production. Each period's measurement is susceptible to change from a number of possible sources. Value of wood products may fluctuate because of changes in general economic conditions or societal preferences. Interpretation of aggregate values and trends is based on the knowledge of the economic, social, and management environment, as measured in other indicators, at and preceding the time of measurement, and should be related to national objectives for supply or value-adding in the wood and wood products sector.Data should also be interpreted relative to national objectives for supply or value-adding in the wood and wood products sector. INDICATOR 6.1.b Value and quantities of production of non-wood forest products Rationale: This indicator measures trends in the value and quantities of non-wood products derived from the forest including products that may be economically important to indigenous people and local communities. Approaches to measurement: Important products could include native flora and fauna, honey, grazing, and the products of indigenous people. The data required for this indicator include those used for indicator 6.1.a. Additional data might include the following:
Data may be available through co-operatives, collectives, producer organisations, and government sources. Data may also be available from local communities, including indigenous communities. Interpretation: Interpretation should relate to the management objectives that have been identified for the non-wood products, where applicable. The value of non-wood products may fluctuate due to changes in general economic conditions or societal preferences.INDICATOR 6.1.c Value of forest based services Rationale: Marketed forest-based services (e.g., guiding-outfitting, carbon credits), provide livelihoods, government revenues for public services, profits to businesses, and incomes for landowners. Although their contribution to the national economy is often relatively small, compared with wood products, they are often wide-spread and involve many people. Some forest-based services, such as wilderness tourism, are relatively small but growing rapidly in economic importance. Carbon credits may become relatively large contributions to the national economy. Approaches to measurement: Ideally, the monetary value of marketed forest-based services should be presented, but consistent data are not usually available. Instead, information on the use of such services may be useful where monetary data do not exist. This could include, for example, the number of people using such services (e.g. guiding, outfitting, the number of visitor-days) or the number and types of facilities available.INDICATOR 6.1.d Production and consumption and import/export of wood products Rationale: The balance of volumes of production, imports, consumption and exports is an indicator of relative development pressure on forest resources, both domestic and international. A high level of production and consumption might reflect a cultural affinity to wood products, the level of disposable income, the price or availability of wood products and their substitutes, or the efficacy of conservation, recycling and reuse measures. Sustainability of domestic forests may be threatened if consumption exceeds domestic supply and foreign supplies are, or become limited. Conversely, as domestic consumption rises, a country's ability to supply other nations will diminish, placing pressure on the sustainability of their forests. Net export earnings from wood-based products is an indicator of the international earning capacity of a country, an important aspect of the wood products industry's contribution to the national economy. Approaches to measurement: Current and past data may be available from government and industry sources, product distributors, and consumer organisations. Interpretation Increasing net export earnings show ongoing competitiveness of the wood products industry. Decreasing net export earnings may indicate a loss of competitiveness or greater domestic consumption, either one leading to a loss of national buying power. This indicator may be influenced by short-term market conditions, consumer demand, disposable income of consumers, availability and cost of substitutes and recycling, and longer-term changes in regional, national or international competitiveness of the forest industry sector. Trends should be evaluated within the context of Criterion 2 and overall forest management objectives and sustainability.INDICATOR 6.1.e Production and consumption and import/export of non-wood products Rationale: Non-wood forest products provide livelihoods, government revenues for public services, profits to businesses, and incomes for landowners.The balance of volumes of production, imports, consumption and exports of non-wood products is an indicator of relative development pressure on these forest resources, both domestic and international. A high level of production and consumption might reflect a cultural affinity to non-wood products, the level of disposable income, the price or availability of non-wood products and their substitutes, or the efficacy of conservation, recycling and reuse measures. Sustainability of domestic non-wood products may be threatened if consumption exceeds domestic supply and foreign supplies are, or become limited. Conversely, as domestic consumption rises, a country's ability to supply other nations will diminish, placing pressure on the sustainability of their forests. Net export earnings from non-wood products is an indicator of the international earning capacity of a country, an important aspect of the non-wood products industry's contribution to the national economy. Approaches to measurement: Current and past data may be available from government and industry sources, product distributors, and consumer organisations. Value of shipments data for various products are more readily available, and can be used as a proxy provided that the difference is explained. Other proxy measures such as volumes of various products, number of animals harvested, etc. may also be the best data available. It is useful to separate non-timber forest products from timber products because of differing quality of data, and because these products are important to the economy, highly visible in the public eye, and there is often a public desire to see the forest used for more than just wood products. The weakness of data for the non-wood sectors of the forest economy is unlikely to change. Interpretation Increasing net export earnings show ongoing competitiveness of the non-wood products industry. Decreasing net export earnings may indicate a loss of competitiveness or greater domestic consumption, either one leading to a loss of national buying power.A positive trend in inflation-adjusted dollars is generally considered desirable, but should be fully explained in the national context in order to provide an indication of sustainability. For example, a precipitous decrease might be a sign of mismanagement, but could also result from dramatic changes in market demand (consumer tastes) or seasonal variations. Increasing value of marketable forest services (e.g. carbon credits) may suggest new land use decisions for forested areas, striking a different balance between products and services. INDICATOR 6.1.f Degree of recycling of forest products and utilization of byproducts [wastes] Rationale: As global demands for forest products increase, there is a growing awareness of the opportunity and need to extend, and improve the efficiency of, the use of forest products through recycling and utilization of byproducts. This indicator identifies the extent to which recycling/reuse of forest products and the utilization of byproducts occurs, and can be linked to conservation of forest resources, as well as reduction in solid waste. Approaches to measurement: Data may include:
Interpretation: Recycling and re-use are important ways of minimising waste. High levels of re-use and recycling (particularly as a proportion of consumption) reduce the pressure on forest resources, thus contributing to resource conservation objectives and solid waste reduction.6.2 Recreation and tourism As population and income levels increase, and as populations become more urbanised, societies tend to utilise forests increasingly for the purpose of outdoor recreation and tourism. At the same time, economic development may impact on the availability of natural, aesthetically pleasing, or reasonably undisturbed forest lands. For these activities to be sustainable, supply and demand of recreation and tourism opportunities should be considered. This element considers recreation and tourism values from both supply and demand perspectives. It considers trends in visitor use days, as well as availability of recreation, and tourism opportunities. INDICATOR 6.2.a Area of forests available for a variety of public recreation and tourism demands Rationale This indicator provides a measure of the extent to which forest management programs recognise the recreational needs of the community. Approaches to measurement: Useful data for this indicator might include the following:
Data for measuring this indicator may be obtained from the following sources:
Interpretation The data will indicate the availability of forest for recreation and tourism over time. Trends would need to be interpreted in the context of management intent, public demand, as well as the quantity, quality, diversity, and sustainability of recreation activities. Issues to consider might include the following:
INDICATOR 6.2.b Number of visits attributed to recreation and tourism Rationale: This indicator provides a useful measure of national recreation and tourism use, and apparent demand. Number of visits per annum is a key variable in determining the potential pressure of visitors and, within management constraints, the sustainability of forest recreation and tourism. Approaches to measurement:Data for this indicator might include the following:
Interpretation An increasing trend indicates that people are using the forest and are likely to want it managed in a sustainable manner.6.3 Investment in the forest sector Investment reflects the interest of society in producing goods and services from the forest. Investment is closely linked to the production of goods and services and continued investment depends largely on the expected rate of return on that investment. The investment source may be from either the public or private sectors. Investment is commonly made in plantation establishment, forest growing, harvesting, protection and processing and in the social and educational sectors, to support the forest sector. Therefore, the level of investment in the forest sector can reflect the direction of the sector's economic activities.INDICATOR 6.3.a Value of investment in forest management, wood and non-wood product industries, forest-based services, recreation and tourism Rationale: This indicator measures the short and long-term commitment of societies to forest management, processing of forest products and the use of forests for environmental, economic and social purposes.This is important information related to the ability to manage forests for forest products and forest health, and to maintain and enhance the long term multiple socio-economic benefits to meet the need of society. Approaches to measurement: Useful data could include investment and annual expenditure on the following activities:
This indicator may be measured by analysis of current and historical investment data using standard commercial accounting methodologies. Data for this purpose may be available from government and private sector sources. It may be useful to differentiate between capital investment and operating costs and between sub-sectors such as wood production in natural forest and plantation, conservation forests, and non-wood products and uses. Countries may wish to report domestic and foreign sources of investment separately. InterpretationIncreasing investment may result in multiple benefits that can be documented with a number of other indicators. Investment trends should be considered in the context of forest management objectives. For example, growth in expenditure in forest recreation and tourism facilities may reflect a recreation forest management emphasis. INDICATOR 6.3.b Value of investment in research and development, and education Rationale: New knowledge through research and development, and its communication, extension, and education to practitioners and the public will improve the practice of forest management in economic, social, and environmental terms.Approaches to measurement: Countries will need to identify and categorise investment against each of the components of this indicator – research, development, and education. Data for measuring this indicator might include national investments in the following:
Measurement of this indicator may include collection and analysis of data from government, universities or equivalent institutions, non-government organisations, research organisations and industry sources. Relevant information might be available from existing surveys by data collection agencies, or it might be necessary to arrange new surveys. InterpretationIncreasing investment may indicate an increasing commitment to forest related research and development, training, extension and education. Interpretation of trends should take account of national and management objectives and policies. This indicator does not address the specific benefits flowing from investment in these three areas. 6.4 Cultural, social and spiritual needs and values Society's values and needs may include cultural and spiritual connections of society to the forest. These cultural and spiritual connections and needs will vary substantially among and within countries and local communities. For example, the spiritual and cultural needs and values of indigenous peoples may be unique and distinct from the spiritual and cultural value of forests of people who live in urban environments. INDICATOR 6.4.a Area of forests managed to protect the range of cultural, social and spiritual needs and values. Rationale: This indicator measures the amount of forest land placed under the range of tenure classifications and/or management regimes that are specifically designed to protect cultural, social and spiritual values. This includes land that is formally recognised as being under indigenous or other citizen's tenure. Approaches to measurement: Data for this indicator might include the following:
Interpretation The intent of this indicator is to show how much of the forest has been recognised and is managed for values that are not strictly economic values, but still important to communities and other elements of society. Trends in the indicator may show that recognition of these values is increasing, decreasing, or being lost. Understanding the values recorded presupposes knowledge of actions by a wide range of people who could influence the protection of these values. INDICATOR 6.4.b Non-consumptive use of forest values Rationale: The non-consumptive use of the forest is a common and traditional activity in many societies. Approaches to measurement: In most cases, information can be estimated via public surveys, questionnaires, or indirect indicators, such as memberships in hiking clubs, bird watching clubs, or forest conservation organisations. The efforts expended by bird watching organisations, for example, provide insight into the value their members place on experiencing biodiversity. 6.5 Employment and community needs Forest-related jobs and community stability, or livelihood, are very important social values of forests. Forest management is primarily a rural activity that often occurs in areas where there are few alternative economic development opportunities. In some cases, rural communities, by becoming heavily reliant on the harvesting or processing of forest products, also become vulnerable to business cycles and structural changes in markets. Such communities may lack the capacity to adapt or respond to changes in external circumstances. In other cases, the expansion of plantations, or use of alternative forest products, can make a positive contribution to rural development. In some cases, the need of some parts of the forest sector to remain competitive in global markets has resulted in the adoption of new technologies that, while maintaining production levels, have reduced local levels of employment. The needs of forest sector employees, residents of rural communities, subsistence users and forest dwelling communities that rely heavily on the forest are important aspects of public decision making and policy. There is also significant employment in urban areas in the processing of forest products, e.g., furniture making. Additional employment is associated with the recycling of wood products, park management, arboriculture, recreational enterprises, etc. INDICATOR 6.5.a Direct and indirect employment rates in the forest sector Rationale: This indicator measures the contribution of the forest sector in providing employment, at national and regional levels. Approaches to measurement Consistent employment data are required. Data that may be useful for this indicator include the following:
Relevant information could be obtained from national institutions or agencies with responsibility for the collection of employment statistics. Direct employment figures may be available from forest industry associations. Indirect employment is usually estimated by a sampling procedure to develop multipliers that are applied to direct employment data. In some circumstances, direct employment figures may also need to be estimated. Interpretation Analysis of employment and census data from government and private sector sources over time may be useful in identifying trends. Employment trends interpreted in the context of community expectations, government policies and industry developments in and close to the region are important. The forest sector includes not only the wood and non-wood forest products industries, but forest research, management, protection, education, recreation and tourism. INDICATOR 6.5.b Workforce health and welfare (wellbeing) Rationale:This indicator measures forest sector wage rates and injury rates as a measure of workforce health and welfare. Approaches to measurement: Data to measure this indicator include wage and injury rates by different components of the forest sector, including non-wood industries and services. Government, union, industry, or research health and safety sources may be useful. Interpretation Comparison of wages in forest sector with wages in similar occupations in the region gives an indication of the economic viability of the sector and potential for income security in dependent communities. Decreasing injury rates in the forest sector may reflect improved occupational health and safety and employment quality from which community social benefits might be derived. INDICATOR 6.5.c Resilience of forest dependent communities, including indigenous communities Rationale: Sustainable forest management is particularly important to rural forest-based communities. Unsustainable resource practices have the potential to result in high social costs concentrated among residents of rural communities. Many of these rural communities are indigenous communities that are surrounded by forest and are dependent on the forest for their economic and social well-being. This indicator examines the resilience of forest dependent communities. Decision-making processes must consider social costs associated with community instability in order to contribute to sustainable forest management. Approaches to Measurement: Historically, the relationship between forests and forest-dependent communities has focused on a stable flow of forest resources to provide employment and other economic benefits in a local economy. Today, with the emergence of ecosystem-based management, the concept of human ecosystems has blossomed. The relationship between forests and their dependent communities now focuses not only on the flow of benefits into the community, but also on the ability of the community to cope with external stresses and disturbances as a result of social, political, and environmental change. One popular method of understanding the sustainability of forest communities involves an assessment of community capacity. Community capacity is understood by many social scientists in terms of specific assets or capitals within a community that provide the resources needed to respond to constant changes in social, economic, or environmental systems. These capitals can be natural (e.g., clean air and water), human (e.g., education and health), economic (e.g., physical and financial assets in the community), and social (e.g., organizations and networks that facilitate social action). Collectively, they provide insights into forest community resilience. Possible measures of forest community resilience include measures of community economic diversity, education attainment levels, employment rates, and the incidence of low income. INDICATOR 6.5.d Area of forests used for subsistence purposes Rationale:This indicator measures the extent to which forests are used to provide basic products for survival outside the economic or market-based system. Such uses of the forest can be valid and their extent should be known and forest management regimes developed to provide for them. Approaches to measurement: Useful data for measuring this indicator might be based on the following:
Information may be obtained through discussions with appropriate custodians, indigenous land managers, other subsistence forest users, and government agencies. Interpretation: Knowing the area of forest to which subsistence users have had access in the past would assist in interpreting initial values obtained for this indicator. Changes in the size or proportion of forest land used for subsistence purposes may indicate the extent to which forests continue to be so used. Interpretation is likely to benefit from input from the indigenous and/or other subsistence users of the forests.The values of the indicators should be interpreted in relation to management objectives during the period between recordings. 6.6 Social equity – distribution of benefitsSustainable forest management involves economic development and it is important to understand how the management control of this development and the benefits from development are distributed in society. An examination of legal rights to use the forest and the distribution of key financial benefits provide important indicators of social equity. Since many forest operations take place in regions located on or near territories that are associated with traditional uses and can have considerations of rights and or title associated with them, the values of those communities or groups tied to the forest areas in question must be considered to ensure sustainable forest management. Furthermore, providing access to forest tenure to indigenous peoples can help them gain a more prominent role in forest management and re-establish the importance these forests have played in their livelihoods. New management arrangements to facilitate the involvement of communities and indigenous peoples in forest management can help to stabilize forest dependent communities through the sustainable use of their local and regional resources. INDICATOR 6.6.a Area of forest by legal right to use Rationale: This indicator describes the distribution of the control of forest-related benefits from forests and can include both private and public forests. Control over who benefits from, and who pays for, economic, social and cultural land uses is tied to legal right to use. Legal right to use is an important indicator of social equity because forestry property rights have evolved differently among and within national and sub-national jurisdictions. In areas where there is public ownership of the forests, legal right to use arrangements can be devised to stipulate the harvesting rights and clarify the forest management responsibilities of the forest owner and other individuals or organizations using the forest. Legal right to use can be applied to public or private forests for long or short-term contractual agreements with parties such as governments, communities, indigenous peoples, and companies. Various types of legal right to use can be arranged to meet particular needs and the details within the contract can be used to affect social equity. For example, forest legal right to use on public/state-owned land generally confer the right to harvest certain forest resources, usually timber. Other resources such as land, water, minerals and wildlife may or may not be excluded from these agreements. In return for these rights, legal right to use holders pay for the timber and, often, also pay fees for rental, protection and management. Legal right to use agreements can also stipulate operational guidelines that the user must respect and be obliged to demonstrate compliance through on-site audits. Failure to meet performance stipulations of the tenure would usually lead to penalties up to and including the termination of the legal right to use. Approaches to measurement: Forest area by timber tenure is reported as the area of private and public lands by jurisdiction that are under short or long term tenure (long term tenure would be 20 years or more) and by tenure holder types (for example indigenous peoples, industry, or community). Interpretation:INDICATOR 6.6.b Distribution of economic benefits from the wood [and non-wood] products industry Rationale: The distribution of economic benefits is an important aspect of social equity, a key economic concept. This indicator provides a fundamental description of the distribution in society of key benefits derived from the wood [and non-wood] products industry, [a] major economic sector[s]. [The wood products industry accounts for the greatest portion of financial benefits from forest resources.]Approaches to measurement: Three broad categories of recipients of financial benefits from forestry are industrial workers, through wages and salaries; business thought profits; and governments through harvesting fees, business taxes and taxes on enterprise profits. Data may be available from national agencies responsible for collecting data for economic statistics.
CRITERION 7 - Legal, Institutional and Economic Framework for Forest Conservation and Sustainable Management Criterion 7 and associated indicators relate to the overall policy framework of a country that can facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of forests. Included are the broader societal conditions and processes often external to the forest itself but which may support efforts to conserve, maintain or enhance one or more of the conditions, attributes, functions and benefits captured in criteria 1 – 6. No priority or order is implied in the listing of the indicators. INDICATOR 7.a Extent to which the legal framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests. Rationale: All countries possess a legal framework, which includes the body of laws and customary rules that direct the actions of their citizens. In some countries there are also sub-national levels of government that contribute to this legal framework. The conservation and sustainable management of forests can be greatly assisted if the national, or appropriate sub-national, legal framework includes elements relating to forests and their use. This indicator addresses five areas relevant to the extent to which the legal framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests legal system, namely, the extent to which the legal framework:
Approaches to Measurement: Useful data for measuring the extent to which the legal system recognizes land tenure arrangements and property rights might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the extent to which the legal system provides for the protection of customary and traditional rights of indigenous people might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the extent to which the legal system encourages best practices codes for forest management might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the extent to which the legal system provides for the conservation of special environmental, cultural, social and/or scientific values might be based on the following:
Interpretation: The compilation of relevant legislation and survey results allows an explicit assessment of how well property rights have been protected. Depending on the outcomes of the compilation, deficiencies, duplication or overlapping responsibilities for laws may be identified and action may then be considered as part of the response to the indicator.The compilation of laws and legal instruments that address planning and co-ordination for the wide range of forest values will demonstrate the extent to which these values are covered by the legal system. Such information will also indicate the expectation of the legal framework to integrate the consideration of forest conditions and values across sectors within a system of planning, assessment and policy review. Compiled information should also demonstrate the extent to which public involvement in forest management is required by law and is practised. Interpretation should seek to describe how effectively laws and regulations regarding public involvement are working. Information compiled on best management practices should demonstrate whether a country is using forest management best practice codes or equivalent mechanism. If no, or few, codes have been established, then consideration might be given to the need for codes of practice based on the information available in the other indicators. INDICATOR 7.b Extent to which the institutional framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests. Rationale: Within the overall legal framework, countries possess a diversity of national and sub-national institutions that have responsibility for implementing government and private policies and programs that can promote sustainable forest management. These institutions can integrate public needs and aspirations into the policy-making process and should be encouraged on an ongoing basis. Individuals within these institutions need the skills and the means to ensure that policies and programs are implemented. A wide variety of skills are needed within institutions if they are to meet the diverse needs of societies from forests. On-going development and maintenance of these skills are also required if institutions are to be effective. Planning, implementation, and enforcement activities should be open and transparent to provide evidence of a country's commitment to sustainability. The degree to which institutions are in place and functioning on a continuous basis can also indicate their potential to promote sustainability. This indicator addresses seven areas relevant to the institutional system, which demonstrate the contribution of the institutional framework to sustainable forest management, namely, the extent to which the institutional framework:
Approaches to measurement: Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to undertake and implement periodic forest-related planning, assessment and policy review including cross-sectoral planning and coordination might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to provide for public involvement activities and public education, awareness and extension programs, and make available forest-related information might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to provides for development and maintenance of a physical infrastructure might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to enforces laws, regulations and guidelines might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to engage and encourage participation of indigenous peoples, communities and others in the development of forest management policy, and practices might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to encourage the application of certifiable forest management systems as measured by the area certified and certification schemes used within the country might be obtained from forest certification bodies or industry associations. Useful data for measuring the contribution of the institutional framework to develop and enhance human resource skills across relevant disciplines might be based on the following:
Interpretation: From the compiled information, it will be possible to determine how institutions plan, assess, review, update and co-ordinate forest management programs. The information on required and actual periodicity of planning activities will indicate whether the institutional capacity exists to regularly implement these forest management activities. From the mechanisms and amount of funds expended on activities under this indicator, it will become clear whether or not government and private institutions are actively and effectively involving the public in forest issues. Information regarding actual public use and participation in forest management and use opportunities, issues, and planning will shed light on the adequacy of public information and education efforts. This indicator aims to reveal institutional capacity to develop and maintain physical infrastructure for the provision of adequate forest management, services and products. Interpretation should be done in the context of the management goals of the forest. The data reported under this indicator will demonstrate the size, recruitment, and skills base of the trained workforce of the forest sector. It will also measure the capacity and commitment of institutions to the ongoing maintenance and development of skilled staff. In turn, this information indicates the technical capacity of the sector to sustainably manage forests. Collation and assessment of this type of information should indicate the extent to which the laws, regulations and guidelines are enforced and therefore their effectiveness in promoting conservation and sustainable management of forests.INDICATOR 7.c Extent to which the economic framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests. Rationale: Forests provide goods and services that contribute to a nation's gross domestic product. It is important that government polices which influence the economic behaviour of producers and consumers of forest goods and services encourage the maintenance or development rather than degradation or depletion of forests. This indicator addresses two areas that demonstrate the extent to which the economic framework supports the conservation and sustainable management of forests:
Approaches to Measurement: Useful data for measuring this indicator might be based on the following:
Useful data on trade policies might include:
Interpretation: INDICATOR 7.d Capacity to measure and monitor changes in the conservation and sustainable management of forests. Rationale: The conservation and sustainable management of forests depends on the capacity to measure and monitor, in a continuous, reliable and agreed fashion, forest related biological, social and economic conditions. These can then be reported to management and stakeholders. An open and transparent measuring and monitoring system should support the generation of policies and investments promoting sustainability. Approaches to Measurement: Availability, statistical reliability and currency of data and information important to measuring or describing all indicators associated with criteria 1-7. Widespread, accessible, and up-to-date information covering criteria 1-7 is important for timely and effective decision-making. Public information and decisions should be based on comprehensive, current and sound data. Useful data for measuring this indicator might be based on the following:
Interpretation: Based on the compiled information, the national capacity to provide the information important to manage and promote sustainability will be apparent. The data collected under this indicator should demonstrate the timeliness and completeness of the information available for the conservation and sustainable management of forests. INDICATOR 7.e Capacity to conduct and apply research and development aimed at improving forest management and delivery of forest goods and services Rationale: Countries rely upon a base of knowledge to support the conservation and sustainable management of forests. New methods, approaches, concepts, and techniques to enhance this knowledge base should be developed and integrated within decision-making frameworks if full benefits from forests are to be realised. Goals of sustainability can be achieved by enhancing the capacity to conduct research and development. This indicator addresses four areas relevant to the legal system, which demonstrate the contribution of the legal framework to sustainable forest management, namely, the:
Approaches to Measurement: Useful data for measuring the development of scientific understanding of forest ecosystem characteristics and functions might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the development of methodologies to measure and integrate environmental and social costs and benefits into market and public policies, and to reflect forest-related resources depletion or replenishment in national accounting systems might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the impact of public policy on sustainable forest management indicator might be based on the following:
Useful data for measuring the ability to predict impacts on forests of possible climate change might be based on the following:
Interpretation: Analysis of this information should indicate the capacity and possible gaps in current and planned research and development in relation to forest ecosystems, and the effectiveness of R&D application in practice. Information gathered for this indicator should demonstrate whether methods exist for valuing the full range of forest values and whether such valuations are being incorporated into market and public decision making processes. It will also indicate the extent to which the full range of values is being used in forest management. The information gathered for this indicator can demonstrate the research and development capacity to predict the human induced impacts on forests, and to apply the results of such predictions to improve forest management. The extent of research and development, and the application of techniques and results, reported for this indicator may demonstrate the capacity a country has to produce this type of prediction.
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